HUMANITIES

SOCIAL SCIENCES

SCIENCES

Typical subjects

English

Philosophy

History

Economics

Manage-

ment

Political

Science

Sociology

Education

Linguistics

Psych

Nursing

Physics

Biology

Geography

Astronomy

Chemistry

Geology

Forestry

Focus of study

Literature

Ideas about reality

Human activity

Physical world

Typical assumptions about knowledge within the discipline

• No one right answer
• Multiple interpretations
• Interpretations important
• Knowledge not necessarily cumulative
• Exact words are important in understanding, interpreting (and perhaps even in shaping) the "reality" in question

• Generally, no one right answer (except e.g., to questions of historical fact or human physiology), but some answers, models, and interpretations are better than others, e.g., if they have better explanatory, predictive, or practical value
• Knowledge is generally cumulative
• In some cases, wording may be important in understanding, interpreting (and shaping?) reality

• one right answer; current (tentative) models bring us closer to that answer
• Knowledge is cumulative
• Reality is independent of the words used to describe it; it’s the reality behind the "transparent window" of working that’s important

Typical kinds of writing

• Analytical essays about texts, writers, and ideas

• Analytical essays on events, phenomena, social behavior, people, practices, etc.
• Case studies, papers on practice
• Experimental research papers

• Experimental research papers

Typical structural features of the writing; typical documentation style

• Introductions and conclusions are expected by otherwise structure is highly flexible
• Headings seldom used
• Year not prominent in documentation style (e.g., MLA)

• Depend on the nature of the paper: the more like a scientific research paper, the more highly prescribed the structure

• Structure is highly prescribed (introduction, literature review, sample, method, findings, discussion, etc.)
• Headings conventional
• Year prominent in documentation style (e.g., APA)

Typical focus, tone, evidence, and use of sources;

• Strong, argumentative thesis (risk-taking is common), supported especially by material quoted from primary sources
• Confident tone
• Material from secondary sources (quoted if the original wording is important, paraphrased if not) may support the writer’s argument. (Material from other sources, e.g., encyclopedia, textbooks can be consulted but is rarely used as evidence or in building an argument.)

• Depend on the nature of the paper: the more like a scientific research paper, the more tentative the tone, the larger the focus on primary research and evidence and the smaller the focus on secondary sources (e.g., brief references within a lit. review)
• In analytical essays, secondary sources may be heavily used, with differences between accounts, models, interpretations, etc. emphasized in order to refined and improve our understanding of the thing studied
• Primary sources especially valued in history

• Focus on conclusions from actual research reported in the paper
• Tentative tone (in keeping with the assumption that the work can at best only bring us closer to the answer)
• Brief references to secondary sources support the research and orient the reader (as part of a literature review)
• Quotes rarely used

Active Learning

In traditional or pedagogical education, material to be learned is often transmitted to students by teachers. That is, learning is passive. In active learning, students are much more actively engaged in their own learning while educators take a more guiding role. This approach is thought to promote processing of skills/knowledge to a much deeper level than passive learning. Related terms/concepts include: experiential learning, hands on learning.

Authentic Learning

In this type of learning, materials and activities are framed around "real life" contexts in which they would be used. The underlying assumption of this approach is that material is meaningful to students and therefore, more motivating and deeply processed. Related terms/concepts include: contextualized learning, theme-based curriculum.

Alternative Assessment

An assessment in which students originate a response to a task or question. Such responses could include demonstrations, exhibits, portfolios, oral presentations, or essays. (Compare to traditional assessment.)

Affective Domain

This domain relates to how individuals feel emotionally and physically while learning. This includes both internal factors (e.g., physical - hunger, thirst, fatigue, and illness; psychological - willingness to take risks, persistence and attention abilities; attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions) and external factors (e.g., physical - comfort concerns such as temperature, noise and light levels, amount and type of distractions; psychological - personal style of others, stressful situations at work or home, support from others).

Behaviorism

A theory suggesting that learning occurs when an environmental stimulus triggers a response or behavior. Based on classical conditioning theory, behaviorism applies to educational practices that reward performance behaviors to encourage repetition of those behaviors. Rote memorization and drill-and-practice instruction are supported by behaviorist theory.

Cognitive Domain

This domain concerns to how individuals think; their intellectual capabilities, level of development and preferred thinking styles. Related terms/concepts include: cognitive or thinking styles, intellectual development, critical thinking.

Critical Thinking

Logical thinking that draws conclusions from facts and evidence.

Curriculum

(plural curricula): A plan of instruction that details what students are to know, how they are to learn it, what the teacher's role is, and the context in which learning and teaching will take place.

Data Driven decison making

A process of making decisions about curriculum and instruction based on the analysis of classroom data and standardized test data. Data-driven decision making uses data on function, quantity and quality of inputs, and how students learn to suggest educational solutions. It is based on the assumption that scientific methods used to solve complex problems in industry can effectively evaluate educational policy, programs, and methods.

Distance learning

Distance learning Using technology such as two-way, interactive television, teacher and student(s) in different locations may communicate with one another as in a regular classroom setting.

Equity

The state of educational impartiality and fairness in which all children—minorities and non-minorities, males and females, successful students and those who fall behind, students with special needs and students who have been denied access in the past—receive a high-quality education and have equal access to the services they need in order to benefit from that education.

Directed Learning

Educational environments that are characterized by the teacher in the role of expert and authority figure, transmitted knowledge and passive learning, standardized curriculum, and mastery of content. Related terms include: pedagogy, teacher-centeredness, behaviorism, and passive learning.

External Motivation

Motivation comes from outside the learner in the form of tangible rewards and punishments such as competition, grades, awards, promotion, pay, etc.

Facilitated Learning

An approach characterized by a high degree of involvement by students in all aspects of their own learning (e.g., setting objectives, assessment). The teacher adopts the role of a "guide on the side" who provides resources and support to learners. Related concepts include: self-directed learning, and experiential learning.

Facilitator

A role for classroom teachers that allows students to take a more active role in learning. Teachers assist students in making connections between classroom instruction and students' own knowledge and experiences by encouraging students to create new solutions, by challenging their assumptions, and by asking probing questions.

Formal Learning

Learning that is conducted/sponsored by an educational or training organization and leads to some form of recognized certification such as a degree, diploma or certificate. General adult literacy programs - programs that are open to any adult and focus mainly on improving core literacy skills (i.e., reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic and computer).

Higher-Order Questions

Questions that require thinking and reflection rather than single-solution responses.

Higher-Order Thinking Skills

Understanding complex concepts and applying sometimes conflicting information to solve a problem, which may have more than one correct answer.

Informal Knowledge

Knowledge about a topic that children learn through experience outside of the classroom.

Inquiry

A process in which students investigate a problem, devise and work through a plan to solve the problem, and propose a solution to the problem.

Interdisciplinary curriculum

A curriculum that consciously applies the methodology and language from more than one discipline to examine a central theme, issue, problem, topic, or experience.

Inclusive Learning Environment s

based on the notion that the educator must adjust the learning environment so that all learners can thrive regardless of gender, ethnicity, class, age, sexuality, cognitive and/or physical abilities. Related concepts include: equality in and access to education, humanism, and learner-centeredness.

Internal Motivation

Learners are motivated from within by personal needs/wants that are positive in nature such as a desire to succeed, love of learning, a feeling of accomplishment, or negative such as fear of failure.

Learner-Centeredness,

Student-Centeredness

An approach to teaching in which the needs and wants of learners are incorporated into the learning process. Students are actively involved in their own learning rather than passive recipients of knowledge/skills. Related terms/concepts include: self-directed learning, and inclusive learning environments.

Learning styles

Refers to an individual's preferred manner of processing material, or characteristic style of acquiring and using information when learning. Learning styles can be loosely grouped into physical and cognitive styles. Related terms/concepts include: multiple intelligences.

Modeling

Demonstrating to the learner how to do a task, with the expectation that the learner can copy the model. Modeling often involves thinking aloud or talking about how to work through a task.

Open-Ended Question

A question that has many avenues of access and allows students to respond in a variety of ways. Such questions have more than one correct answer.

Open-Ended Task

A performance task in which students are required to generate a solution or response to a problem when there is no single correct answer.

Open-Response Task

A performance task in which students are required to generate an answer rather than select an answer from among several possible answers, but there is a single correct response.

Pedagogy

An educational approach characterized by teacher-centeredness. The teacher is viewed as an authority figure and students are not generally involved in decisions/actions in regard to learning. Related concepts include: directed learning.

Prior Knowledge

The total of an individual's knowledge at any given time.

Problem Solving

A method of learning in which students evaluate their thinking and progress while solving problems. The process includes strategy discussion--determining solution strategies to similar problems and pinpointing additional problems within the context of their investigation.

Physical Domain

Relates to the five senses and physical being of learners.

Process

Refers to how to think (organize, analyze, evaluate, research, frame and solve problems), rather than what to think (i.e., learning a specific skill or content) in regard to learning.

Reliability

An indicator of score consistency over time or across multiple evaluators. Reliable assessment is one in which the same answers receive the same score regardless of who performs the scoring or how or where the scoring takes place. The same person is likely to get approximately the same score across multiple test administrations.

Rote Learning

Learning in a mechanical fashion through repetition (e.g., memorization, practice drills). Related term: surface level processing, non-reflective learning.

Rubrics

Specific criteria or guidelines used to evaluate student work.

Scientific Knowledge

Knowledge that provides people with the conceptual and technological tools to explain and describe how the world works.

Self-Directed Learning

A learning environment in which students are given a great deal of responsibility for and input into their own learning. The role of the teacher becomes to facilitate or guide learning rather than direct it. Related terms/concepts include: facilitated learning, learner-centeredness.

Standardized Tests:

Assessments that are administered and scored in exactly the same way for all students. Traditional standardized tests are typically mass-produced and machine-scored; they are designed to measure skills and knowledge that are thought to be taught to all students in a fairly standardized way. Performance assessments also can be standardized if they are administered and scored in the same way for all students.

Standards

Statements of what students should know and be able to demonstrate. Various standards have been developed by national organizations, state departments of education, districts, and schools.

Subject-based curriculum

Involves standardized material that is tied to that of our public school system. That is, skills/knowledge are grouped according to subject areas (e.g., mathematics, language arts), and divided into chunks or units that are taught in a predominantly linear or sequential fashion. Related terms/concepts: Adult Basic Education (ABE), General Education Development (GED), academic upgrading programs.

Teacher-centeredness

A learning environment in which is the teacher is the authority in the classroom and directs all aspects of the learning environment including setting goals, determining objectives, assessment, etc. Related terms/concepts: pedagogy, behaviorism, liberalism.

Teaching for Understanding

A teaching method that focuses on the process of understanding as the goal of learning rather than simply the development of specific skills. It focuses on forming connections and seeing relationships among facts, procedures, concepts, and principles, and between prior and new knowledge.

Technology

In education, a branch of knowledge based on the development and implementation of computers, software, and other technical tools, and the assessment and evaluation of students' educational outcomes resulting from their use of technology tools.

Theme-based Curriculum

Material that is framed around topics related to learners' immediate needs and/or wants (e.g., parenting, employment, financial management, health and nutrition). Related terms/concepts: authentic learning, learner-centeredness.

Traditional assessment

An assessment in which students select responses from a multiple-choice list, a true/false list, or a matching list. (Compare to alternative assessment.)

Transformative Learning

Engaging in learning to purposively question one's own assumptions, beliefs, feelings, and perspectives in order to grow or mature personally and intellectually. Related terms/concepts: critical thinking.

Validity

An indication that an assessment instrument consistently measures what it is designed to measure, excluding extraneous features from such measurement.